Gebruiker:Neushorn/wiu2

Een Protection and Idemnity insurace (P&I Verzekering) is een aansprakelijkheidsverzekering die de reder af kan sluiten. De aansprakelijkheidsdekking van de verzekering van het zeeschip is beperkt tot maximaal de cascowaarde van het schip.

De 'protection omvat de aansprakelijkheid voortvloeiend uit het gebruik van het schip als 'varend voorwerp'. De idemnity omvat de aansprakelijkheid voortvloeiend uit het gebruik van het schip als 'vervoermiddel'.

Geschienis

Ondanks dat transportverzekeringen al bestaan vanaf de middeleeuwen achtten de reders het tot de 19e eeuw niet noodzakelijk een aansprakelijkheidsverzekering af te sluiten. Vanaf de 19e eeuw zochten gwonde bemanningsleden compensatie. In 1846 werd in het Verenigd Koninkrijk de Lord Campbell's Act ingevoerd. Deze wet maakte claims door passagiers en diens nabestaanden mogelijk. De kans op claims nam sterk toe met de toenname van de emigranten naar Noord Amerika en Australië vanaf de tweede helf van de eeuw. Reders werden zich steeds sterker bewust dat de huidige verzekeringsmogelijkheden onvoldoende waren.

In 1855 werd de eerste protection association, de Shipowners' Mutual Protection Society (Onderlinge Reders Bescherming Sociëteit), opgericht. Het doel was het dekken van aansprakelijkheid voor overlijden en letsel.

The first protection association, the Shipowners' Mutual Protection Society, was formed in 1855. It was intended to cover liabilities for loss of life and personal injury and also the collision risks excluded from the current marine policies, particularly the excess above the limits in those policies. Similar associations were subsequently formed in various cities and towns within the United Kingdom, and later in Scandinavia, Japan, and the United States.

In 1874 the risk of liability for loss of or damage to cargo carried on board the insured ship was first added to the cover provided by a protection Club. The values of cargoes had risen and cargo underwriters, encouraged by the courts, had become keener on recovering their losses from shipowners. After 1874 many Clubs added an indemnity class to provide the necessary cover. Subsequently, most of these separate classes were amalgamated with the class reserved for the original protection risks, and the distinction between the two classes virtually disappeared.

Following the grounding of the Torrey Canyon in 1967, coverage for the liabilities, costs and expenses arising from oil spills became an increasingly important aspect of P&I insurance.

Coverage today

More than 90% of oceangoing ships today are insured by the mutual P&I Clubs that are members of the International Group of P&I Clubs, [1]. These organizations are the successors of the associations founded in the 19th and early 20th centuries. P&I Club coverage is generally as broad as the liabilities faced by a shipowner qua shipowner. The following are the major exceptions to this rule.

Other insurance

Traditionally, one of the main reasons a claim was not covered by P&I insurance was that the managers of the Club thought it should be covered by other insurance that the shipowner should have taken out. That usually meant hull insurance, which paid collision liabilities and, in some cases, liabilities for damage to fixed and floating objects ("FFO"), or war risks insurance.

Mutuality

Another reason a claim might not be covered, or at least not covered in full, is that the shipowner had not taken certain steps to have limited his liability in order to protect the Club. The principal steps expected of shipowners were making sure that the appropriate exculpatory language was inserted in bills of lading and passenger tickets. Today the legal requirements with which shipowners are expected to comply include all the requirements of the flag state concerning marine safety and environmental protection. Another illustration of this principle is the rule that contractual liabilities (those assumed by the shipowner as a matter of contract) are not generally covered.

Moral hazard

P&I Clubs have always taken pains to point out to members that liabilities arising out of the fraudulent misdelivery of cargo, especially delivery of cargo without demanding the production of an original bill of lading, were not covered by P&I insurance. Club managers evidently thought that commerce would grind to a halt if there was a risk that shipowners would conspire with shippers to defraud receivers and their banks, so they refused to indemnify shipowners under these circumstances. This view was shared by the English courts. Sze Hai Tong Bank v. Rambler Cycle Co. [1959] A.C. 576; [1959] 2 Lloyd's Rep. 114 (P.C.)

Willful misconduct

Losses intended by the insured, or to which it "turned a blind eye" knowing they were likely to happen.

Public policy

There was a time when criminal liabilities were not covered as a matter of course. To say otherwise might even make the underwriter liable for facilitating the crime. It was understood that criminal liability was imposed only for intentional misconduct, and the requirement of fortuity generally foreclosed any question of coverage for criminal liabilities. Today, the situation is vastly more difficult. Statutes in many countries impose "criminal" liability for negligent conduct that damages the environment, under circumstances which do not even rise to the level of "willful misconduct" under the law of marine insurance. Shipowners justifiably expect their Clubs to pay the fines and penalties thus incurred.

[[Category:Types of insurance]]